Introduction: Understanding Fascism

Fascism represents one of the most consequential political phenomena of the modern era, yet it remains notoriously difficult to define with precision. At its core, fascism is an ultranationalist, authoritarian political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century and reached its most destructive expression in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Rather than adhering to a coherent philosophical framework, fascism is perhaps best understood through its characteristic features and rhetorical strategies.

As Yale philosophy professor Jason Stanley explains in “How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them” (2018), fascism is “a method of politics” that “includes a set of practical tools for acquiring and maintaining power.” It typically involves a charismatic leader who claims to embody the will of the “true people,” while demonizing outgroups, attacking democratic institutions, and promoting an ideology of national rebirth after alleged decline.

Fascism doesn’t announce itself openly — it infiltrates democracies gradually through specific rhetorical strategies and political techniques.

Historian Robert Paxton offers a comprehensive definition in “The Anatomy of Fascism” (2004), describing it as “a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation, or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants… abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.”

Critical to understanding fascism is recognizing that it doesn’t typically announce itself openly. Instead, as scholar Umberto Eco noted in his essay “Ur-Fascism” (1995), it infiltrates democracies gradually through specific rhetorical strategies and political techniques. These strategies don’t merely represent political disagreements within democratic norms — they fundamentally challenge the pluralistic foundations upon which liberal democracy rests.

What makes fascism particularly dangerous in democratic contexts is that it exploits democratic freedoms to undermine democracy itself. It uses free speech to attack the concept of objective truth, participates in elections while delegitimizing electoral processes, and leverages democratic institutions to dismantle democratic safeguards. As Stanley emphasizes, fascism thrives by “hiding its anti-democratic nature behind democratic rhetoric.”

Fascism doesn’t arrive through military coups; it infiltrates democracies through language and rhetoric.

Yale philosophy professor Jason Stanley’s seminal work “How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them” (2018) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding fascist rhetoric across different historical contexts. As Stanley argues, fascism employs consistent rhetorical strategies that undermine democratic norms and institutions from within.

This analysis will examine these strategies through a historical lens and consider their relevance to contemporary American politics under the current Trump administration (2025). By understanding these patterns, citizens can better recognize and respond to potential threats to democratic governance before they become entrenched.

Key Fascist Rhetorical Strategies: Historical Context

1. Mythic Past and Ultranationalism

Fascist movements typically invoke a mythical past of national greatness and purity. As Stanley writes, “The mythic past is intentionally constructed to create a sense of resentment toward groups seen as threatening that unity and purity.” This vision typically centers around a dominant ethnic or cultural group whose heritage has allegedly been corrupted.

Historical examples are abundant. Mussolini glorified ancient Rome, promising to restore Italy to imperial greatness. Nazi Germany promoted the myth of a pure Aryan past disrupted by Jewish influence. In both cases, nostalgia for a fictional golden age justified radical actions to “reclaim” national greatness.

2. Anti-Intellectualism and Conspiracy Theories

Stanley emphasizes that fascist movements routinely attack educational institutions and intellectual expertise. “Fascist politics seeks to undermine public discourse by attacking and devaluing education, expertise, and language,” he notes. This strategy involves dismissing unfavorable facts as conspiracies while promoting alternative “realities” that support the fascist narrative.

Fascist movements position the leader and party as the sole arbiters of truth.

Throughout history, fascist regimes have targeted universities, researchers, and journalists. Nazi Germany burned books and purged Jewish academics. The Soviet Union under Stalin persecuted intellectuals who questioned party dogma. In each case, the goal was to position the leader and party as the sole arbiters of truth.

3. Hierarchy and Victimhood

Stanley observes that fascist rhetoric promotes natural hierarchies while simultaneously portraying the dominant group as victimized. “Fascist politics exploits a sense that the traditionally dominant group is being victimized,” he explains. This creates a powerful contradiction where the “master race” or dominant group is simultaneously superior yet unfairly persecuted.

In 1930s Germany, the “master race” narrative coexisted with claims that Germans were victims of an international Jewish conspiracy. This victim mentality justified extreme measures against perceived enemies while unifying supporters through shared grievance.

4. Law and Order Rhetoric

According to Stanley, fascist movements emphasize lawlessness among minority groups while promoting harsh punishment. “In fascist politics, racial, religious, or ethnic minorities are continuously connected to crime in propaganda,” he writes. The resulting fear then justifies extraordinary police powers and the curtailment of civil liberties.

Franco’s Spain frequently portrayed political opponents as criminals, while Mussolini’s “squadristi” targeted political enemies under the guise of restoring order. This conflation of political opposition with criminality effectively delegitimized democratic resistance.

5. Sexual Anxiety and Traditional Values

Stanley identifies that fascist movements often exploit sexual anxiety and promote traditional gender roles. “Fascist politics feeds on an anxiety about virility and gender roles being undermined by modernization,” he explains. This manifests as concerns about declining birth rates, homosexuality, and changing gender norms.

Nazi Germany’s emphasis on women as mothers and homemakers, exemplified by the “Kinder, Küche, Kirche” (children, kitchen, church) slogan, demonstrates this pattern. Similarly, Mussolini’s pronatal policies sought to increase Italy’s population for military and imperial ambitions.

Contemporary Parallels: The Trump Administration’s Rhetoric

With this historical framework established, we can examine potential parallels in contemporary American politics under the Trump administration. It’s important to note that identifying rhetorical strategies doesn’t necessarily mean America is experiencing fascism, but rather that certain warning signs merit vigilance.

Appeals to a Mythic Past

The slogan “Make America Great Again” inherently suggests a return to a bygone era of American greatness. Political scientist Ruth Ben-Ghiat notes that this rhetoric “follows the fascist playbook by mythologizing a ‘better’ past that predates the nation’s supposed decline.” This narrative often centers on a time before significant demographic changes and progressive social movements.

The simultaneous messaging that America is both superior yet victimized creates the exact contradictory mindset central to fascist movements.

Attacks on Institutions and Expertise

Throughout both administrations, Trump has consistently attacked institutions including the FBI, Department of Justice, intelligence agencies, and scientific bodies like the CDC. The Washington Post documented over 30,000 false or misleading claims during Trump’s first term alone, reflecting what Stanley calls “an assault on reality itself.” This creates an information environment where objective facts are replaced by partisan loyalty.

Hierarchy and Victimhood

Trump’s rhetoric frequently combines assertions of American exceptionalism with claims that his supporters are victims of various elite conspiracies. As political analyst Ezra Klein observes, “The simultaneous messaging that America is both superior yet victimized by foreign powers and internal enemies creates the exact contradictory mindset that Stanley identifies as central to fascist movements.”

Law and Order Messaging

The Trump administration has consistently linked immigration to crime despite statistics showing immigrants commit fewer crimes than native-born citizens. According to criminal justice researcher John Pfaff, “This rhetoric exemplifies Stanley’s observation that fascist movements exaggerate criminality among minority populations to justify harsh measures.” This messaging has been used to justify policies like family separation and mass deportations.

Traditional Values Rhetoric

The administration has embraced policies perceived as supporting traditional gender roles while opposing LGBTQ+ rights expansions. As gender studies professor Judith Butler notes, “The moral panic around transgender rights and gender-affirming care mirrors exactly what Stanley describes as fascist exploitation of sexual anxiety.”

Democratic Vulnerabilities and Citizen Response

Stanley argues that democracy’s greatest vulnerability is its openness to anti-democratic forces. “Liberal democracy by its nature allows its own subversion,” he writes. This creates what political theorist Karl Popper called the “paradox of tolerance” — that unlimited tolerance ultimately leads to the disappearance of tolerance itself.

Democracy’s greatest vulnerability is its openness to anti-democratic forces.

What can citizens do in response to these rhetorical patterns?

1. Develop Media Literacy

Media scholar Renee Hobbs emphasizes that “citizens must develop skills to identify propaganda and evaluate sources critically.” This includes recognizing emotional manipulation, checking sources, and seeking diverse perspectives. Understanding the specific rhetorical patterns described by Stanley provides a valuable framework for this analysis.

2. Protect Democratic Institutions

Democracy scholars Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt argue that “citizens must defend democratic norms and institutions even when it’s politically inconvenient for their side.” This includes supporting judicial independence, free press, fair elections, and peaceful transfers of power.

3. Build Cross-Partisan Alliances

Political scientist Jennifer McCoy suggests that “overcoming toxic polarization requires finding common ground with ideological opponents while isolating extremism.” This doesn’t mean abandoning principles, but rather seeking areas of agreement on fundamental democratic values.

4. Engage Locally

Community organizer Marshall Ganz emphasizes that “democratic renewal happens from the bottom up.” Local engagement in school boards, city councils, and community organizations builds democratic muscles and creates resilience against authoritarian impulses.

5. Maintain Historical Awareness

Stanley himself stresses the importance of historical awareness: “By studying the rhetoric and propaganda of the past, we can identify patterns before they fully manifest in the present.” This historical perspective helps citizens recognize warning signs early.

Conclusion

The rhetorical strategies identified by Jason Stanley provide a framework for understanding how fascism can infiltrate democratic societies. Recognizing these patterns in historical context helps citizens evaluate contemporary political discourse with greater awareness.

Our responsibility is to understand these rhetorical strategies, protect democratic institutions, and engage in the difficult work of maintaining a pluralistic society.

While reasonable people may disagree about the extent to which current American politics exhibits these patterns, Stanley’s work reminds us that democracy requires constant vigilance. As citizens, our responsibility is to understand these rhetorical strategies, protect democratic institutions, and engage in the difficult work of maintaining a pluralistic society where diverse groups can coexist under shared democratic values.

By developing this awareness and taking active steps to strengthen democratic culture, citizens can help ensure that the warnings from history serve their purpose — not as predictions of inevitable decline, but as guideposts for democratic resilience.

This article draws heavily from Jason Stanley’s work “How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them” (2018) and incorporates insights from other scholars of fascism and democratic governance.

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